Spanish retreat from Aztec capital

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June 30, 1520: In the face of a rebellion by the Aztecs against their rule, the forces led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés fought their way out of Tenochtitlan, suffering heavy losses. This event, known as "La Noche Triste" or "the Night of Sadness," was a tragic night during which many soldiers perished in Lake Texcoco when the vessel carrying them and the Aztec treasures hoarded by Cortés sank. The struggle also resulted in the death of Montezuma II, the Aztec emperor who had been reduced to a subordinate of Cortés the previous year. It remains unclear whether Montezuma II was killed by the Aztecs or the Spanish.

Tenochtitlan, founded in 1325 A.D. by a nomadic tribe of hunters and gatherers on islands in Lake Texcoco near the present-day location of Mexico City, rapidly grew into the Aztec Empire within a century. The empire's expansion was largely due to its advanced agricultural system. By the time Montezuma II ascended to the throne in 1502, the Aztec Empire had reached its zenith, extending its influence as far south as modern-day Nicaragua. The empire relied primarily on military might to maintain its control, and Montezuma II established a bureaucratic system, creating provinces that were required to pay tribute to the imperial capital of Tenochtitlan. The conquered peoples harbored resentment towards the Aztec demands for tribute and victims for religious sacrifices, but the Aztec military effectively suppressed rebellions.

Meanwhile, Hernán Cortés, a young nobleman born in Spain, arrived in Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1504. In 1511, he joined Diego Velazquez on an expedition to conquer Cuba and was elected mayor of Santiago, the capital of Hispaniola, on two occasions. In 1518, he was appointed captain general of a Spanish expedition to the American mainland. Although the governor of Cuba, Velazquez, later revoked the order, Cortés sailed without permission. After exploring the Yucatan coast, Cortés landed in Tabasco, Mexico's Bay of Campeche, in March 1519 with 500 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 16 horses. He managed to win the support of the locals and was given an enslaved woman named Malinche, who was baptized as Marina and eventually bore him a son. Marina, who was fluent in both Maya and Aztec, served as an interpreter. Cortés continued his expedition along the Mexican coast and established Veracruz, primarily to secure his election as captain general by the colony, thereby freeing himself from Velazquez's authority and making him accountable only to King Charles V of Spain.

In Veracruz, Cortés trained his army and then deliberately burned his ships to ensure the loyalty of his men to his conquest plans. Learning of political unrest within the Aztec Empire, Cortés led his force into the Mexican heartland. Along the way to Tenochtitlan, he encountered resistance from local populations, but many of these groups, including the Tlaxcala nation, became his allies after realizing his intention to overthrow their despised Aztec rulers. Montezuma II, upon hearing of Cortés' approach with his fearsome horses and advanced weaponry, attempted to bribe him, but Cortés remained undeterred. On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his 1,000 Tlaxcaltec warriors were allowed to enter Tenochtitlan without opposition.

Montezuma II believed the Spaniards to be divine messengers of the god Quetzalcoatl, who was prophesied to return from the east during a "One Reed" year, which corresponded to 1519 on the Aztec calendar. The Spaniards were received with great honor, and Cortés seized the opportunity by taking Montezuma hostage, hoping to govern the empire through him. Marina, Cortés' mistress and a valuable ally, played a crucial role in convincing Montezuma to cooperate.

In the spring of 1520, Cortés received news of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Panfilo Narvaez and sent by Velazquez to strip Cortés of his command. Cortés led his army out of Tenochtitlan to confront them, leaving behind a garrison of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs to maintain control over the city. Cortés defeated Narvaez and incorporated his army into his own. When he returned to Tenochtitlan in June, he found the garrison under siege by the Aztecs, who had rebelled after Cortés' subordinate, left in charge of the city, massacred several Aztec chiefs. The population was on the brink of revolt, and Cortés and his men, under immense pressure and facing food shortages, fled the capital under the cover of night on June 30. In the ensuing conflict, Montezuma lost his life—according to Aztec accounts, at the hands of the Spaniards, while Spanish reports attribute his death to an angry Aztec mob resentful of his subservience to Spanish rule. He was succeeded as emperor by his brother, Cuitlahuac.

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