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Not all types of reinforcers are automatically positive. Some can be learned. Reinforcers that are learned are called conditioned reinforcers. For example, money is not a primary reinforcer. To small children, money is just paper. But children grow to learn that money can be used to buy candy, toys, and other things they like. Money becomes very rewarding. It is one of the most common and effective reinforcers in many human societies.

Animals learn conditioned reinforcers when they are paired with primary ones. Suppose an animal trainer exclaims "Good boy!" and then gives the animal food or a back scratch. After several repetitions, the exclamation "Good boy!" will become rewarding to the animal. Positive attention like this is a conditioned reinforcer.

A trainer leans over the edge of a pool to kiss a dolphin.
Positive attention is a conditioned reinforcer.

Negative Reinforcement
A less common type of reinforcement is negative reinforcement. Unlike positive reinforcement, which involves giving a favorable stimulus, negative reinforcement involves removing an unfavorable stimulus. For example, consider a child crying or whining for something it wants. If his parent gives in and produces the desired effect (that is, giving the child what he wants), the child stops crying. He has reinforced his parent's behavior by removing the unfavorable stimulus. It can be argued that this isn't necessarily the ideal outcome for the parent - the parent has just reinforced the child's crying behavior! But it is an example of negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Punishment involves giving an unfavorable consequence. Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior repeating. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.



Schedules Of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement for desired behaviors may occur on one of four possible reinforcement schedules.

Fixed interval.
This schedule of reinforcement is based on receiving reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. The desired behavior must continue for a certain amount of time before a reinforcer is delivered. The amount of time between reinforcers is always the same. Perhaps the most common type of fixed interval reinforcement is an employee who gets a paycheck every two weeks for doing his job. The paycheck reinforces his continued work.

Fixed ratio.
A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule is based on receiving reinforcement after a fixed amount of behaviors. The desired behavior must occur a certain number of times before it is reinforced. The number of behaviors always remains the same. Example: a child receives an ice cream cone after she reads five books. She receives a reward after every fifth book she reads.

Variable interval.
Variable interval reinforcement occurs after varying lengths of time. The behavior is reinforced at random intervals. Volunteer work may fall under this category. Because it is not a paid job, volunteer workers find reinforcement in ways other than money. Words or gestures of appreciation, given at random intervals, are reinforcing. The volunteer is likely to continue his work.

Variable ratio.
Variable ratio reinforcement occurs after a varying number of behaviors. Reinforcement varies unpredictably, so the person or animal performing the behavior is never certain when they will be reinforced. A common example of variable ratio reinforcement in humans is gambling. A person depositing coins in a slot machine is never sure when he will receive a pay-off. Initially, variable ratio reinforcement may take longer to condition a behavior. But once conditioned, the behavior generally occurs at a higher rate and takes longer to extinguish.

Extinction Of Behavior
If a behavior is not reinforced, it decreases. Eventually, it is extinguished altogether. This is called extinction. Animal trainers use the technique of extinction to eliminate undesired behaviors. (In animal training, when a trainer requests a particular behavior and the animal gives no response, this is also considered an undesired behavior.) To eliminate the behavior, they simply do not reinforce it. Over time, the animal learns that a particular behavior is not producing a desired effect. The animal discontinues the behavior.

When using the extinction technique, it is important to identify what stimuli are reinforcing for an animal. The trainer must be careful not to present a positive reinforcer after an undesirable behavior. The best way to avoid reinforcing an undesired behavior is to give no stimulus at all.